Massospora and Cicada Alkaloids: Parasitic Biochemistry and What Science Actually Proved

**Research review** > **Biosecurity, health, and legal warning:** This article is strictly educational and concerns evolutionary mycology and chemical ecology. Infected insects represent a severe biological hazard: infected tissues undergo active bacterial decay and contain hundreds of uncharacterized fungal metabolites and secondary toxins. Foraging, ingesting, or attempting to extract compounds from wild cicadas carries extreme risks of poisoning, systemic infection, and organ damage, and violates narcotics laws because cathinone and psilocybin are tightly scheduled substances. ## The hook Headlines often proclaim that the fungus *Massospora cicadina* turns periodical cicadas into "hypersexual zombies" by dosing them with amphetamines and psychedelic mushrooms. A viral wave even prompted curious internet users to contemplate catching infected cicadas for recreational use. What did chromatography and metagenomics actually discover, and where did the popular hype run ahead of peer-reviewed data? ## In brief - In a landmark 2019 study published in *Fungal Ecology*, Boyce and colleagues identified the plant-associated amphetamine cathinone in periodical cicadas infected by *Massospora cicadina*, and psilocybin in annual cicadas infected by *M. platypediae* and *M. levispora* [S-001]. - The claim that a single fungal species produces both cathinone and psilocybin in the same insect is false: these compounds are partitioned across distinct fungal lineages and distinct host species [S-001, S-002]. - The *Massospora* genome lacks the classical psilocybin gene cluster (*psiD*, *psiK*, *psiM*) found in *Psilocybe* as well as known plant cathinone enzymes, pointing toward novel, uncharacterized enzymatic machinery [S-001]. - Behavioral manipulation is real in insects: during the Stage I conidial phase, infected male periodical cicadas perform female-typical wing-flick signals, attracting other males and spreading spores through physical contact [S-003]. - Metabolomics resolved 1,176 small molecules, most of which remain unidentified; whether cathinone directly causes specific behavioral changes or functions as part of a complex metabolic cocktail remains a hypothesis rather than settled fact [S-001]. ## The biology: flying salt shakers of death Entomopathogenic fungi in the genus *Massospora* (Zoopagomycota: Entomophthorales) utilize an unusual ecological strategy termed active host transmission. Unlike *Ophiocordyceps*, which kills its ant host before fruiting bodies erupt, *Massospora* keeps the cicada alive and airborne even after substantial abdominal degeneration [S-001, S-003]. The infection follows two distinct stages: 1. **Stage I (conidiospores):** The fungus consumes the insect's posterior abdominal segments, revealing a dense chalky plug of infective conidia. Infected male periodical cicadas (*Magicicada*) continue normal male acoustic calling but add female-specific wing-flick gestures. Uninfected males interpret these wing-flicks as mating receptivity, mount the infected male, and acquire infectious spores [S-003]. 2. **Stage II (resting spores):** Later in the emergence period, infected cicadas produce thick-walled resting spores that drop into the soil, where they persist for 13 or 17 years until the subterranean nymphs emerge again [S-002, S-003]. Field entomologists affectionately call these infected insects "flying salt shakers of death," as they fly through tree canopies scattering fungal dust from an open abdominal cavity [S-001, S-003]. ## The alkaloid surprise: what mass spectrometry uncovered In 2019, Matthew Kasson's research group (Boyce et al.) deployed liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) on infected cicada tissues [S-001]: - Periodical cicadas infected with *M. cicadina* contained **cathinone**, an amphetamine-related monoamine alkaloid previously known only from the African/Arabian shrub khat (*Catha edulis*). - Annual cicadas infected with *M. platypediae* and *M. levispora* contained **psilocybin**, an indole alkaloid classic to basidiomycete "magic mushrooms." This marked the first time cathinone was documented outside vascular plants and the first time psilocybin was confirmed in the ancient fungal lineage Zoopagomycota [S-001]. However, popular reports immediately conflated the findings. *Massospora cicadina* does not produce both chemicals; each alkaloid is exclusive to its respective fungal clade. Furthermore, genomic and transcriptomic sequencing showed no presence of canonical psilocybin biosynthesis enzymes (*psiD*, *psiK*, *psiM*) or plant cathinone enzymes, implying either convergent molecular evolution or unmapped host-microbe biosynthetic crosstalk [S-001, S-002]. ## Is the fungus deliberately controlling the cicada's mind? The study's authors proposed a chemically induced extended phenotype: cathinone and psilocybin might suppress appetite and elevate motor endurance, enabling the cicada to continue flying and seeking mates despite horrific physical degradation [S-001]. Crucially, this is a working hypothesis: - Researchers have not yet conducted controlled dosing experiments administering isolated synthetic cathinone to healthy cicadas to determine if it alone replicates the Stage I wing-flicking behavior [S-001, S-003]. - The fungal-host metabolome contained over 1,100 other uncharacterized compounds. Physical nerve trauma, endocrine disruption, and insect immune distress could all contribute to altered locomotion and signaling [S-001]. - Ascribing intentional "mind control" or "cunning sexual strategy" to the fungus is teleological rhetoric. Natural selection preserves transmission advantages, but the precise biochemical trigger remains under investigation [S-002, S-003]. ## What is known, what is not, and the risks **What is known:** - Cathinone occurs in *M. cicadina*; psilocybin occurs in *M. platypediae* and *M. levispora* [S-001]. - Stage I male cicadas mimic female courtship signals to transmit conidiospores [S-003]. - *Massospora* is an obligate, host-specialized monophyletic genus of cicada pathogens [S-002]. **What is not known:** - The specific enzymatic steps and novel genes responsible for synthesizing cathinone and psilocybin in *Massospora* [S-001]. - Whether cathinone is the direct driver of hyperactive mating behavior or an incidental metabolic byproduct [S-001, S-003]. - The biological activities and potential toxicities of the more than 1,100 other unidentified molecules in infected cicadas [S-001]. **What does not follow from the sources:** - That wild infected cicadas can be harvested or safely consumed for recreational psychoactive effects. - That one fungal species produces both stimulants and psychedelics concurrently. - That the fungus acts with deliberate cognitive intention or that its insect-specific adaptations translate to human neurobiology. **Risks:** - **Biological toxicity:** Infected cicadas harbor fungal spores, necrotic insect tissue, and opportunistic bacteria. Ingestion poses severe risks of mycotoxicosis, acute gastrointestinal necrosis, and septicemia. - **Legal and substance risks:** Cathinone and psilocybin are Schedule I controlled substances in most jurisdictions. Possessing, transporting, or distributing wild organisms containing controlled alkaloids incurs serious criminal penalties. ## What was verified and what was meant | Claim | Status | Source | |---|---|---| | Discovery of cathinone in M. cicadina in periodical cicadas | verified by LC-MS/MS and metabolomics | S-001 | | Discovery of psilocybin in M. platypediae / M. levispora in annual cicadas | verified by LC-MS/MS | S-001 | | Simultaneous presence of cathinone and psilocybin in a single fungal species | disproven; partitioned between distinct species | S-001, S-002 | | Absence of canonical psilocybin and cathinone genes in Massospora genomes | verified by metagenomics | S-001 | | Stage I infected male cicadas display female-typical wing-flick signals | verified by behavioral field studies | S-003 | | Resting spores persist in soil for 13 to 17 years | verified by life-history ecology | S-002, S-003 | | Cathinone directly and solely causes the behavioral manipulation | authors' working hypothesis; direct causal trial pending | S-001 | | Safe recreational use of infected cicadas by humans | disproven; high biohazard risk and criminal liability | S-001 | This article is provided for educational and scientific literacy purposes and does not constitute advice on interacting with wild biological specimens.